I was fortunate to be able to contribute towards several papers in a recent publication “The New Nepenthes – vol. 1″ (Dec 2011) which compiles work from multiple authors and describes eight new Nepenthes species that have been found in recent years. Two of these, N. undulatifolia (below left) and N. nigra are from Sulawesi, an island with a relatively impoverished Nepenthes flora of only 11 species. The highly unusual N. undulatifolia was an exciting find for botanists because it could not be clearly grouped with any other closely related species.

The remote Hose Mountains in central Sarawak, an area where I had discovered two other endemic Nepenthes in 2001, yielded another new species, N. appendiculata (below right), during a study in 2011. This species was named for the remarkable swollen appendage protruding from the tip of the pitcher lid, a feature unlike any other species in the genus. Presumably an aid in the attraction of insect prey, this appendage is brightly colored and riddled with large nectar glands. Further field work may determine what types of insects this plant specializes in feeding on.

References:

Jebb, M. & M. Cheek (1997) A Skeletal Revision of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae). Blumea 42: 1-106.

Lee, C.C., G. Bourke, W. Taylor, Y.S. Teck, K. Rembold (2011) Nepenthes appendiculata, a new Pitcher Plant from Sarawak. In The New Nepenthes, Redfern Natural History Publications Ltd. 1: 24-35.

Lee, C.C., A. Wistuba, J. Nerz, U. Zimmermann, A.P. Paserang, R. Pitopang (2011) Nepenthes undulatifolia, a new Pitcher Plant from South East Sulawesi. In The New Nepenthes, Redfern Natural History Publications Ltd. 1: 492-505.

Nerz, J., A. Wistuba, C.C. Lee, G. Bourke, U. Zimmermann, S. McPherson (2011) Nepenthes nigra, a new Pitcher Plant from Central Sulawesi. In The New Nepenthes, Redfern Natural History Publications Ltd. 1: 468-491.

The 19th Century naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, who spent the better part of a decade traversing the Indonesian archipelago, visited Halmahera (then more commonly referred to as ‘Gilolo’) in 1857-1858 and recognized the island as a complete unknown in terms of its flora and fauna. Whilst basing himself on the nearby volcanic island of Ternate, Wallace made numerous forays onto the mainland and other offshore islands to collect specimens of insects and birds, many of which he noted were completely new to science. One such find was a remarkable new bird of paradise which Wallace considered one of his greatest discoveries and later came to bear his name. It was also here on Halmahera in 1858, that Wallace formulated his own theory of natural selection, independently from Charles Darwin, whilst suffering from a feverish delirium brought on by malaria.

Although not as biodiverse as the Sunda islands or New Guinea, in part due to its smaller size and distance from the mainlands of Southeast Asia and Australia, Halmahera (inclusive of several of its near offshore islands such as Morotai and Bacan) is a veritable hotspot for species endemism. Some notable animal specialties include the Ornate Cuscus (Phalanger ornatus), Sailfin Lizard (Hydrosaurus weberi), and Tri-colored Monitor (Varanus yuwonoi), among many others. But it is the wonderful array of endemic birds for which the island is particularly known, and visiting naturalists often seek out such beauties as the Ivory-breasted Pitta (Pitta maxima), White Cockatoo (Cacatua alba), Invisible Rail (Harbroptila wallacii), and the remarkable Wallace’s Standardwing (Semioptera wallacii).

My time on Halmahera was focused in the Weda Bay region, just below the eastern peninsula, where the clear reef-filled waters are backed by undulating forested hills rising to nearly 1000 meters in elevation. Weda Bay Resort, located on the coast about a dozen kilometers north of the town, kindly hosted me during my visit and provided invaluable support for my field work. This eco-resort consists of a modest set of traditionally-built bungalows primarily catering to divers who come to enjoy the renowned marine life of the bay.

Here I spent several weeks in and out of the jungle and along disused logging roads attempting to discover the island’s many biological treasures. Whilst mammals were scarce (and almost entirely nocturnal), birdlife was incredibly rich and the air was perpetually filled with the harsh piercing calls of cockatoos, parrots, and hornbills. The forests of Halmahera are devoid of any large mammalian carnivores, with the only significant large land predators being snakes. My field assistant Lius, a native of north Halmahera, related to me a personal account of an encounter with a 9-meter Reticulated Python (Python reticulatus) which had killed and swallowed one of his companions in 1977. During my visit the only python we encountered was a Halmahera Scrub Python (Morelia tracyae) consuming a Nicobar Pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica) high in a tree.

Traditional hunting practices in this area appeared to have kept most wildlife fairly shy, and it took considerable effort to observe some species at close range. One of my most sought-after subjects was the legendary Wallace’s Standardwing (pictured below), which until as recently as the 1980’s had been seen only a handful of times in the wild. Like many other birds of paradise, the males of this species own extravagantly ornate plumage and gather at communal display grounds (leks) to compete for the attention of females. To observe the Standardwings at such a site it is necessary to arrive well before dawn, as their display activities begin just before sunrise.

I will never forget the first morning I spent at a Standardwing lek watching these avian acrobats and listening to their raucous calling. Within the confines of a single small tree crown several male birds had partitioned certain branches as their personal display territories, with younger or less dominant males nearby in other trees. Upon the approach of a female bird, the males would begin their frantic actions, calling loudly and putting on an incredible display which consisted raising four long white plumes on their shoulders and simultaneously expanding brilliant metallic blue breast shields whilst lightly fluttering their outstretched wings. Occasionally a bird would fly straight up several meters and slowly parachute back down to his chosen branch. The visiting female would take her time to select the male she was most impressed with, mate with him and then disappear off into the forest. I found that photographing in the dim pre-dawn light was exceptionally difficult, and not long after the sun had risen all the birds usually dispersed for their daily foraging activities.

I spent nearly a week camped in the rainforest near this site and I never tired of watching these marvelous birds. In the past few decades, many of the known lek locations have been destroyed by logging, and although I could frequently hear the sound of chainsaws in the distance, it was a relief to know that this site had been privately purchased by Weda Resort in order to preserve it.

To view photos taken during my November 2011 trip to Halmahera, click here.

References:

Coates, B.J. & K.D. Bishop (1997) A Guide to the Birds of Wallacea. Dove Publications.

Setiadi, M.I., A. Hamidy, Z. Abidin, D. Susanto, R.M. Brown, A.T. Peterson, X. Li & B.J. Evans (2009) Genetic Structure of Herpetofauna on Halmahera Island, Indonesia: Implications for Aketajawe-Lolobata National Park. Conservation Biology, 24:2, 553–562.

Wallace, A.R. (1869) The Malay Archipelago. Oxford University Press, Kuala Lumpur.

In late 2010 I was fortunate to be able to join a team of researchers investigating animal interactions with the giant pitcher plant Nepenthes rajah. Endemic to the cool and mist-shrouded slopes of Mount Kinabalu and Mount Tambuyuon in northern Borneo, this is not only one of the world’s largest Nepenthes but also the source of the original stories of “rat-eating” carnivorous plants. There exist a number of confirmed incidents of this plant consuming small mammals which are unfortunate enough to fall within the voluminous pitchers. Recent research however, has shed light on a far more interesting and complex animal/plant relationship, and prior to our 2010 work it had been already shown that the Mountain Treeshrew (Tupaia montana) visits the pitchers of N. rajah (as well as several other Bornean Nepenthes) to feed on the sweet nectar exuding from beneath the pitcher lid. The plant benefits from these visits by frequently collecting the treeshrew’s scat which fall inside the pitcher and are a valuable source of nutrients.

During the field work it was observed that some of the animal droppings found on and in the pitchers appeared different than those left behind by the Mountain Treeshrew. However, despite many days of watching the plants during daylight hours, treeshrews were the only mammals seen to visit the plants. It wasn’t until camera equipment was left in place to monitor the plants during the night that we ascertained the presence of another animal, the Summit Rat (Rattus baluensis) at the pitchers. This is the first instance confirming a rodent/Nepenthes relationship, and it is presumed that it matches the treeshrew/Nepenthes mutualism albeit nocturnally. The photo here, the first ever to illustrate this interaction, shows an image I obtained at night by use of an infrared camera trap positioned adjacent to the pitcher and illuminated by multiple strobes.

Unlike the related Nepenthes lowii, another Bornean pitcher plant which has lost its means to trap insects and depends entirely on the treeshrew droppings for its nutrients, N. rajah retains its carnivorous apparati, a slippery peristome and smooth pitcher walls, and still consumes prey. It is quite likely that the records of rats and treeshrews having drowned in N. rajah pitchers were not instances of these mammals seeking out a source of water (as has been assumed in the past), but rather the result of unfortunate animals falling into their “toilet”.

References:

Chin, L.J., J.A. Moran, C. Clarke (2010) Trap geometry in three giant montane pitcher plant species from Borneo is a function of tree shrew body size. New Phytologist 186: 461–470.

Clarke, C.M., U. Bauer, C.C. Lee, A.A. Tuen, K. Rembold (2009) Tree shrew lavatories: a novel nitrogen sequestration strategy in a tropical pitcher plant. Biology Letters 5: 632–635.

Greenwood, M., C. Clarke, C.C. Lee, A. Gunsalam & R.H. Clarke (2011) A Unique Resource Mutualism between the Giant Bornean Pitcher Plant, Nepenthes rajah, and Members of a Small Mammal Community. PLoS ONE 6:6.

This is yet another example in a recent trend in splitting island endemics, with a similar story following the Sunda Clouded Leopard (Neofelis diardi) and the Bornean Pygmy Elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis), both closely related to mainland species. Exactly where to draw the line will always be a matter of subjective debate among taxonomists, but as more evidence, particularly DNA sequencing, becomes available for comparative analysis, it is likely that we will see many more species separated as distinct.

References:

Rheindt, F. E. & Eaton, J. A. 2010. “Biological species limits in the Banded Pitta Pitta guajana“. Forktail 26:86-91.

This region, together with much of eastern Central Sulawesi, comprises some of the most extensive formations of ultrabasic rock in the world. This results in soils which have a severe deficiency of important plant nutrients and instead contain toxic concentrations of certain heavy metals. Consequently, ultrabasic forest areas have largely been spared from intensive agriculture and logging due to the poor conditions for planting and lack of valuable timber trees.

The indigenous Wana people live throughout the reserve and consist of about 600 families that follow a traditional lifestyle. Their subsistence is based on swidden and shifting agriculture, hunting, and harvesting of forest products such as rattan and damar.

To view photos taken during my November 2006 trip to Morowali Nature Reserve, click here.

Current Status
This nature reserve was first established in March 1980, but although it is a completely protected area there are no currently maintained facilities or management staff. It is possible that in the near future Morowali may become a national park, which would lead to funding for proper management but also probably result in the majority of lowland areas being subsequently zoned for logging. Due to the relatively intact indigenous culture of the Wana people, Morowali has recently been proposed as a World Cultural Heritage Site.

How to Get There
The reserve is approachable from several directions, but the easiest is to take a 2-hour boat ride from Kolonodale to Tambayoli, which is a settlement at the western end of the park. It is possible to charter your own boat to access other parts of the park, but this is much more expensive.

Kolonodale can be reached by bus from Palu or by a 6-hour boat ride from Baturube. Alternatively, to reach Kolonodale from Macassar or Rantepao it is necessary to first take a bus to Soroako, cross Lake Matano via boat, and then take a small bus from the village of Nuha.

At the time of this writing, there is only a very poor road from Poso passing through Kecematan Tojo to Tambayoli, but it is not recommended since an expensive 4WD vehicle is required, and it is impassable during wet weather. A new road is planned from Baturube but this is not expected to be completed until 2008.

From Mando there are several flights per week to Luwuk, but travellers with more time on their hands can take the overland route to Gorontalo and then board a ferry to Pagaimanan. From Luwuk it is a 6-hour bus ride to Baturube from which it is possible either to take a boat to Kolonodale or enter the eastern end of the park near the Tokala Mountains.

When to Go
The best time to visit is in the dry season (September to November). During the rainy season (May to June) the Tambayoli valley is sometimes prone to flooding, and the rivers are more difficult to cross.

What to See
Despite having a great diversity of wildlife which includes all the larger endemic mammals such as Babirusa (Babyrousa celebensis), Anoa (Bubalus quarlesi), and Sulawesi Civet (Macrogalidia musschenbroekii), spotting animals in the forest is relatively difficult. Most species are very wary of people due to continuous hunting pressure from the local inhabitants.

Over 170 bird species have been recorded from Morowali, including many endemics. Notable species include the Maleo (Macrocephalon maleo), Yellow-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua sulphurea), Ornate Lory (Trichoglossus ornatus), all five endemic kingfishers, and 18 species of forest pigeons and doves. The Tambayoli valley is a pleasant and easy place to spot numerous raptors, water birds including the Wooly-necked Stork (Ciconia episcopus), and nightjars at dusk.

Reptiles include the bizarre Sail-fin Lizard (Hydrosaurus amboinensis), and huge 9 meter-long Reticulated Pythons (Python reticulatus).

A wealth of fascinating plants can also be seen in the reserve, ranging from massive Agathis (damar) trees to rare orchids and seven species of Nepenthes pitcher plants, including the rare and beautiful N. hamata (shown below).

Practicalities
Despite the great potential for nature tourism, Morowali sees few foreign visitors and there are currently no developed facilities available. Guides can be found in Kolonodale, Tambayoli, or Morowali village, but you must be well-versed in Bahasa Indonesia as few of them speak English. Simple accomodation can be obtained at any village or town, usually by making arrangements with the kepala desa (head of the town).

The office of Yayasan Sahabat Morowali (“Friends of Morowali”) in Kolonodale is an invaluable resource of information on various treks and practicalities about the reserve. They also have a small library of excellent books and research papers on Morowali.

It is required to obtain a police permit before entering the reserve, even though the borders are not enforced. The closest police kantor for this is in Kolonodale, but due to the infrequency of visitors they don’t always stock blank forms (I was once told by the officer in charge to travel 2 days by bus to the next nearest office to get a new form). It is thus a better idea to obtain the permit in Palu or Manado beforehand if possible.

Hiking is generally very pleasant if one follows the well-established trails used by the Wana, but can get strenuous on the mountains. When trekking it is most convenient to stay in Wana huts or jungle shelters, but tents must be carried when attempting some of the more remote peaks.

Leeches can only be found on some of the wetter mountains. Malaria is a small probem in the Tambayoli area. If you are concerned, you might want to consider prophylactics.

Resources
Yayasan Sahabat Morowali (Friends of Morowali)
Jl. Yos Sudarso No. 36
Kolonodale 94671, Sulawesi Tengah
Mr. Jabar Lahadji
Tel: +62-81354447868
Email: jabarlahadji@yahoo.com or elangmulya@yahoo.com

Web Links
A study on sustainable harvests by traditional Wana Hunters
United Nations Environment Programme review of Morowali Reserve

References:

Whitten, A.J., Mustafa, M. and Henderson, G.S. (1987). The Ecology of Sulawesi. Gadjah Mada University Press, Yogykarta. 777 pp.